The differences in gender, as represented by elite burials, will be examined in ancient Egypt. The tombs of Ramesses II and Nefertari will act as case studies in illustrating any differences or associations by looking at grave goods, preparation of the deceased, and tomb paintings, and hieroglyphs. We argue that gender roles are reflected in the burials of these great royals, and that even though these two individuals have been gone for thousands of years, we can use what remains in the archaeological record to make this comparison
Monday, 28 March 2011
Who are Ramesses II and Nefertari?
Born on the 22 of February 1303 B.C., Ramesses II ruled for 66 years as the third king of the 19th Dynasty, before he died in 1213 B.C. Nefertari, Ramesses II’s favourite wife, was born in 1301 and reigned alongside him beginning in 1279. Her date of death is unknown but seems to have occurred scarcely three years after Year Twenty One (McDonald 1996).Both the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens are located in western Thebes. The Egyptians placed their cemeteries to the west, believing the netherworld existed in the land of the setting sun (McDonald 1996). Ramesses II’s tomb is located in the Valley of the Kings. Although not the largest tomb, the surface area is vast and the tomb is considered to be one of the grandest ever constructed. Nefertari’s tomb is tunnelled into the northern slope of the Valley of the Queens. Within the tomb, “descending stairways, asymmetries of design, and the skewing of the tomb’s axis are all thought to allude to the torturous topography of the Egyptian netherworld” (McDonald 1996). Similar to Ramesses II’s tomb, Nefertari’s is the most spectacular tomb of any queen.
Valley of the KingsValley of the Queens
Ramesses II: Treatment of the Deceased
Ramesses II had a very lavish burial that was in accordance with his influential power over the people of Egypt. Through methods of identifying his burial processes and treatments we are also examining his individuality as a person and a ruler.
Inner Wrappings and their Contents
When Ramesses II was discovered he was in a very plain, wooden sarcophagus; what is interesting is that when he was re-wrapped it seems that the priests who did the job were very careful in keeping the appropriate items with him that are required for entering the afterlife.
In his initial burial, Ramesses II had a ‘Book of the Dead’ placed between his hands followed by a layer of wrapped linens that were soaked in oils for sealing purposes, and then in between each layer of cloth, multiple amulets were placed. The amulets are significant because they were to protect the king’s body on its journey into the afterlife. When all of the wrappings were done layering the body, a final cloth was placed over Ramesses II’s body and the God Osiris was painted on to this. The painting of Osiris on the linens wrapping the body is significant because Osiris (being the God of the underworld) was to judge the weighing of Ramesses’ heart and determine his passing into the underworld. (pgs: 88-91, Ramses II- S.Fitzgerald).
Even though Ramesses II’s body was re-wrapped many years after his initial burial, his body was left intact and the original amulets and book remained in his wrappings.
– Link to Stephanie Fitzgerald’s book “Ramses II”.
Movement of Ramesses II
Ramesses II had a unique movement of his body because of early looting of his original tomb. Like many of the early Egyptian pharaohs, Ramesses II was buried amongst the Valley of the Kings (specifically tomb KV7), which was specifically designed for royal burials. When looters raided his tomb before the third intermediate, priests transported his mummified body to a cache in Deir-el-Bahari (cache DB320).
During the periods in which Ramesses II's body was transported his body was re-wrapped and a docket was inserted into his wrappings to identify the time of this re-wrapping and re-burial. This re-wrapping occurred in the tomb of Seti i (tomb KV17 in the city if Sohag of Upper Egypt). After this movement, his body was placed in a nearby Cliff Tomb of Inhapy where it was to be his final place for resting. The significant, underlying reason behind these movements of the mummy was the protection of a very powerful king that was respected and looked upon as a god-like figure to his people.
Finally, the Pharaoh's mummified body was discovered in its last burial placing in Deir-el-Bahari. The man who examined the mummy on June 3, 1886 was Gaston Maspero. The final coffin that Ramesses II was buried in was a plain, wooden anthropoid coffin; unlike the sarcophagus that he would of been buried in right after his death. With little referencing artefacts to compare Ramesses II's wealth to other pharaohs, some archaeologists have used the measure of a minor king (eg. Tutankhamen) to a highly influential and powerful king like Ramesses II, to only infer that his tomb would have housed a plentiful amount of extravagant pieces, (http://famouspharaohs.blogspot.com/2007/10/ramses-ii-death-and-burial-when-ramses.html).
Ramesses II had a unique movement of his body because of early looting of his original tomb. Like many of the early Egyptian pharaohs, Ramesses II was buried amongst the Valley of the Kings (specifically tomb KV7), which was specifically designed for royal burials. When looters raided his tomb before the third intermediate, priests transported his mummified body to a cache in Deir-el-Bahari (cache DB320).
During the periods in which Ramesses II's body was transported his body was re-wrapped and a docket was inserted into his wrappings to identify the time of this re-wrapping and re-burial. This re-wrapping occurred in the tomb of Seti i (tomb KV17 in the city if Sohag of Upper Egypt). After this movement, his body was placed in a nearby Cliff Tomb of Inhapy where it was to be his final place for resting. The significant, underlying reason behind these movements of the mummy was the protection of a very powerful king that was respected and looked upon as a god-like figure to his people.
Finally, the Pharaoh's mummified body was discovered in its last burial placing in Deir-el-Bahari. The man who examined the mummy on June 3, 1886 was Gaston Maspero. The final coffin that Ramesses II was buried in was a plain, wooden anthropoid coffin; unlike the sarcophagus that he would of been buried in right after his death. With little referencing artefacts to compare Ramesses II's wealth to other pharaohs, some archaeologists have used the measure of a minor king (eg. Tutankhamen) to a highly influential and powerful king like Ramesses II, to only infer that his tomb would have housed a plentiful amount of extravagant pieces, (http://famouspharaohs.blogspot.com/2007/10/ramses-ii-death-and-burial-when-ramses.html).
Passage into the AfterlifeThinking back to what was described under Ramesses II’s wrappings; it is described how important Osiris’s role was in the immortality process. Some of the important features that were taken for preparing Ramesses II's body were keeping the heart inside of his body. Later in the blog, you will see how this occured and what other post-mortem alterations were made to the body. Another key feature for the king was that his body was to remained as intact as possible because of its reflection on the body carried alongside the king into the afterlife.
To keep the body from drying out, the priests prepping the body would cover his body with natron so that it would dry out completely and leave no retaining moisture that could cause decay. After a long, 70 day drying process, the body was then ready to be wrapped. An important feature for mummifying individuals is to have specific priests chanting over the body while the mummification process is in progression. The spells chanted were supposed to keep evil spirits away from harming the king. The only physical evidence derived from Ramesses II’s mummy of the ‘spirit-deterring’ process are the oils spread on the layers of the wrappings as well as the amulets. (R.Freed et al – U. Of Michigan, Ramses II).
– Link to book: “Ramses II, the great pharaoh and his time” by R.Freed and colleagues.
Ramesses II: Embalming Process
Ramesses II was a grand and worshipped Pharaoh who's people of Egypt wanted to make sure his soul would live on for eternity in the underworld. To ensure the Pharaoh's safe journey, his body was embalmed or mummified. First, the brain was removed using a long hook that was inserted through his nasal cavity. After the brain was completely removed, they filled his nasal cavity with peppercorns, seeds, and even small animal bones to retain the unique structure of Ramesses II's nose (2011). This is said to have been an unusual process because few mummies show evidence of this kind of treatment. It explains why Ramesses II's mummy was one of the few with such a distinctive profile. The majority of mummy's noses are flattened by the tight wrappings around their face, but the filling in Ramesses II's nasal cavity protected it from such destruction (Fitzgerald, 2009). 
The embalmers then individually wrapped his toes, fingers, arms and legs which shows fine attention to detail and precision. Once every part of his body was wrapped, they placed the Book of the Dead between his hands (Fitzgerald, 2009). This is a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts from various periods, containing prayers, magic formulas, and hymns to be used by the soul of the deceased for guidance and protection on its journey to the afterlife. More linen strips were wrapped around his body and then he was enveloped in a second layer that was soaked in resin and sweet smelling oils that helped preserve the skin. Amulets were placed in between the linen layers that were said to protect the body on it's way to the underworld. Finally, Ramesses II's body was draped in a white cloth and the embalmers carefully painted an image of Osiris (the Egyptian God of the underworld) on the outside of the wrappings as a finishing touch (Fitzgerald, 2009). Although the embalmers are thought to have taken great caution with his body during the mummification, some researchers believe there is evidence of carelessness.
The embalmers had allegedly removed Ramesses II's heart by accident which is the main holder of intelligence of the individual, and is crucial for the journey into the underworld. To correct this mistake, they had to sew the organ back inside his body (Fitzgerald, 2009). Radiographs of the body, thousands of years later, also showed evidence of a postmortem fracture on his cervical spine (Feldtkeller et al., 2002). Researchers believe this was a purposeful fracture to straighten out the neck before the embalming process (Feldtkeller et al., 2002), but could have also been an accidental break while the body was being prepared.
Ramesses II: Sarcophagus and Paintings
Unfortunately for Egyptologists and art history enthusiasts, the first tomb of Ramesses II was located in a terrible place. The location is prone to flooding (ten times and counting, so far), and as a result a lot of the artwork that isn’t completely ruined is very washed out. He was reburied, and whatever was salvageable was reburied with him. His first tomb was located in the illustrious Valley of the Kings .
Arguably the greatest ruler in Egyptian Pharaoh history, he was known as “The Builder”. He utilised his long reign as Pharaoh to not only go off on a great number of campaigns and raids, but he also focused on architecture that would last a great deal of time after his number was up.
Thought of as not the longest, but possibly the tomb with the greatest amount of surface area, it is thought that Ramesses II began work on his grandiose tomb the second year he held power. Found on the walls of his tomb (evidence remaining after the effects of the flood) were paintings and engravings. The main rejuvenation effort was placed upon the sarcophagus, which was analyzed and revealed to have been completely covered in coloured pigment. Also found in his tomb was a small carved pit, only found in two other tombs to date. On the wall near the entrance of the tomb there is an engraving of Ramesses the second’s most famous wife, Nefertari. There is mention of her in his tomb, but in her tomb there is no mention of him, even though she died much before he did. Not only does he have a fantastically gigantic resting place for himself, but another huge tomb known as KV 5 was created for his sons.
Arguably the greatest ruler in Egyptian Pharaoh history, he was known as “The Builder”. He utilised his long reign as Pharaoh to not only go off on a great number of campaigns and raids, but he also focused on architecture that would last a great deal of time after his number was up.
Nefertari: Grave Goods and Funerary Practices
When Nefertari’s tomb (QV66) was discovered in 1904 by Ernesto Schiaparelli no body was found, nor where there many grave goods left in her grave, as it had been robbed in antiquity. However there were several things left in the grave: pieces from her pink granite sarcophagus, scarab pieces, pottery fragments, shabti figures and the lid of a shabti box. There was also a wooden djed-pillar (seen below), as well either the knob of a chest or the handle from a cane was found. The grave robbers apparently missed a pair of her funerary sandals; also a fragment of a bracelet was found and bought by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
Though her body complete body was not found, Ernesto found 2 knees along with material for mummification. It may be that her missing body was taken out in the 26th Dynasty (she was buried in the middle of the 19th). However, another Egyptologist Christian Leblanc found pieces of a pink granite sarcophagus, which had the name Nefertari on it, in the tomb of Queen Tuya, who was the mother of Ramesses II. He proposed that Neferatris’ tomb was taken out and smashed and the parts reused for Tuya’s tomb (Nefertari QV66, 2011).
In Ancient Egypt it was believed that men were responsible for creation as the myths surrounding birth and rebirth the male gods are the ones who create, whereas the female goddess are the vessels through which the gods act. Because of this for females to be reborn in the afterlife they had to become masculinized afterwards (ed. Graves-Brown 2008). This was solved through adaptations of the female’ identity at death, in order to be reborn a female would have to be shaped into a form of Osiris (ed. Graves-Brown 2008). This was done through the androgynies of her sarcophagus and the shabti figures by deemphasizing more feminine aspects such as the manner of dress, and an androgynous.
However there is no set of rules or requirements for the shaping of the female so there is a lot of variation across time (ed. Graves-Brown 2008). We are only interested in the 19th Dynasty as this was when Neferatri was alive. Before the 19th Dynasty the forms were more androgynous in form, however during the 19th there was a move to include more feminine looking funerary art; such as the inclusion of female style dress on the sarcophagus. During the reign of Ramesses II dark red skin was used to depict women (ed. Graves-Brown 2008).
(The Fakebusters, 2010)
We are only able to speculate at this point about how Neferatri’s body and sarcophagus would have been decorated because they have not been found. However we may be able to infer what it possibly looks like by comparing it to other female burials, which have been found from the same era, but because of the status difference her burial, would have been grander in scale.
Something, which was interesting, was that Neferatris name is mentioned in Ramesses II’s tomb, but in Neferatri’s tomb there is no mention of Ramesses II or their sons.
(Nefertari QV66, 2011)
Nefertari: Tomb Paintings
The spectacular paintings in Nefertari’s tomb were created by first applying several layers of plaster to the limestone and then carving the vignettes and texts into that plaster (McDonald 1996). This established a suitable surface that could be primed with gypsum wash and then painted in brilliant colours (McDonald 1996).
The paintings cover about 520 square metres of plastered walls and ceilings with various corridors, annexes, chambers, niches, and recesses. The paintings are part of a ritual process designed to guide Nefertari into the hereafter following her death. Along with the texts adorning the walls, the paintings act as a beacon to aid her on her “long and perilous” journey (McDonald 1996). Interestingly, the tomb is divided into two separate elements: the upper level of the tomb (Chambers C and G) is the conceptual equivalent to the Akhet, the area that Nefertari and the solar deity must traverse to enter and exit the netherworld; the lower level (Burial Chamber K) is like the Duat, the realm of Osiris and the dead (McCarthy 2002).
Atum (the creator god) Nun (primeval ocean)
Shu (god of air and light) Tefnut (goddess of moisture)
Geb (god of earth) Nut (goddess of the sky)
Isis Osiris
Nephthys Seth
The significance of Osiris is represented through several vignettes within the tomb. It is thought that the dead need to identify with “Osiris, the ultimate model for their salvation and a protection against Seth, who [represents] hostile, chaotic forces that [imperil] a soul’s transformation into an effective, eternal spirit” (McDonald 1996).
Other divine deities are present throughout the tomb. In the upper chambers (C and G) Nefertari, with her body preserved, is greeted by some of these deities who grant her a place in the afterlife. Her descent into the burial chamber (chamber K) begins after she is fortified with occult powers and she then must secure immortality by successfully navigating the gates and portals of the netherworld. Horus, son of Isis and dressed as officiating priest, restores Nefertari’s body after she meets the challenges. At this point, Nefertari is joined by Osiris in her eternal resting place in the afterlife (McDonald 1996).
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