The differences in gender, as represented by elite burials, will be examined in ancient Egypt. The tombs of Ramesses II and Nefertari will act as case studies in illustrating any differences or associations by looking at grave goods, preparation of the deceased, and tomb paintings, and hieroglyphs. We argue that gender roles are reflected in the burials of these great royals, and that even though these two individuals have been gone for thousands of years, we can use what remains in the archaeological record to make this comparison
Monday 28 March 2011
Who are Ramesses II and Nefertari?
Born on the 22 of February 1303 B.C., Ramesses II ruled for 66 years as the third king of the 19th Dynasty, before he died in 1213 B.C. Nefertari, Ramesses II’s favourite wife, was born in 1301 and reigned alongside him beginning in 1279. Her date of death is unknown but seems to have occurred scarcely three years after Year Twenty One (McDonald 1996).Both the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens are located in western Thebes. The Egyptians placed their cemeteries to the west, believing the netherworld existed in the land of the setting sun (McDonald 1996). Ramesses II’s tomb is located in the Valley of the Kings. Although not the largest tomb, the surface area is vast and the tomb is considered to be one of the grandest ever constructed. Nefertari’s tomb is tunnelled into the northern slope of the Valley of the Queens. Within the tomb, “descending stairways, asymmetries of design, and the skewing of the tomb’s axis are all thought to allude to the torturous topography of the Egyptian netherworld” (McDonald 1996). Similar to Ramesses II’s tomb, Nefertari’s is the most spectacular tomb of any queen.
Valley of the KingsValley of the Queens
Ramesses II: Treatment of the Deceased
Ramesses II had a very lavish burial that was in accordance with his influential power over the people of Egypt. Through methods of identifying his burial processes and treatments we are also examining his individuality as a person and a ruler.
Inner Wrappings and their Contents
When Ramesses II was discovered he was in a very plain, wooden sarcophagus; what is interesting is that when he was re-wrapped it seems that the priests who did the job were very careful in keeping the appropriate items with him that are required for entering the afterlife.
In his initial burial, Ramesses II had a ‘Book of the Dead’ placed between his hands followed by a layer of wrapped linens that were soaked in oils for sealing purposes, and then in between each layer of cloth, multiple amulets were placed. The amulets are significant because they were to protect the king’s body on its journey into the afterlife. When all of the wrappings were done layering the body, a final cloth was placed over Ramesses II’s body and the God Osiris was painted on to this. The painting of Osiris on the linens wrapping the body is significant because Osiris (being the God of the underworld) was to judge the weighing of Ramesses’ heart and determine his passing into the underworld. (pgs: 88-91, Ramses II- S.Fitzgerald).
Even though Ramesses II’s body was re-wrapped many years after his initial burial, his body was left intact and the original amulets and book remained in his wrappings.
– Link to Stephanie Fitzgerald’s book “Ramses II”.
Movement of Ramesses II
Ramesses II had a unique movement of his body because of early looting of his original tomb. Like many of the early Egyptian pharaohs, Ramesses II was buried amongst the Valley of the Kings (specifically tomb KV7), which was specifically designed for royal burials. When looters raided his tomb before the third intermediate, priests transported his mummified body to a cache in Deir-el-Bahari (cache DB320).
During the periods in which Ramesses II's body was transported his body was re-wrapped and a docket was inserted into his wrappings to identify the time of this re-wrapping and re-burial. This re-wrapping occurred in the tomb of Seti i (tomb KV17 in the city if Sohag of Upper Egypt). After this movement, his body was placed in a nearby Cliff Tomb of Inhapy where it was to be his final place for resting. The significant, underlying reason behind these movements of the mummy was the protection of a very powerful king that was respected and looked upon as a god-like figure to his people.
Finally, the Pharaoh's mummified body was discovered in its last burial placing in Deir-el-Bahari. The man who examined the mummy on June 3, 1886 was Gaston Maspero. The final coffin that Ramesses II was buried in was a plain, wooden anthropoid coffin; unlike the sarcophagus that he would of been buried in right after his death. With little referencing artefacts to compare Ramesses II's wealth to other pharaohs, some archaeologists have used the measure of a minor king (eg. Tutankhamen) to a highly influential and powerful king like Ramesses II, to only infer that his tomb would have housed a plentiful amount of extravagant pieces, (http://famouspharaohs.blogspot.com/2007/10/ramses-ii-death-and-burial-when-ramses.html).
Ramesses II had a unique movement of his body because of early looting of his original tomb. Like many of the early Egyptian pharaohs, Ramesses II was buried amongst the Valley of the Kings (specifically tomb KV7), which was specifically designed for royal burials. When looters raided his tomb before the third intermediate, priests transported his mummified body to a cache in Deir-el-Bahari (cache DB320).
During the periods in which Ramesses II's body was transported his body was re-wrapped and a docket was inserted into his wrappings to identify the time of this re-wrapping and re-burial. This re-wrapping occurred in the tomb of Seti i (tomb KV17 in the city if Sohag of Upper Egypt). After this movement, his body was placed in a nearby Cliff Tomb of Inhapy where it was to be his final place for resting. The significant, underlying reason behind these movements of the mummy was the protection of a very powerful king that was respected and looked upon as a god-like figure to his people.
Finally, the Pharaoh's mummified body was discovered in its last burial placing in Deir-el-Bahari. The man who examined the mummy on June 3, 1886 was Gaston Maspero. The final coffin that Ramesses II was buried in was a plain, wooden anthropoid coffin; unlike the sarcophagus that he would of been buried in right after his death. With little referencing artefacts to compare Ramesses II's wealth to other pharaohs, some archaeologists have used the measure of a minor king (eg. Tutankhamen) to a highly influential and powerful king like Ramesses II, to only infer that his tomb would have housed a plentiful amount of extravagant pieces, (http://famouspharaohs.blogspot.com/2007/10/ramses-ii-death-and-burial-when-ramses.html).
Passage into the AfterlifeThinking back to what was described under Ramesses II’s wrappings; it is described how important Osiris’s role was in the immortality process. Some of the important features that were taken for preparing Ramesses II's body were keeping the heart inside of his body. Later in the blog, you will see how this occured and what other post-mortem alterations were made to the body. Another key feature for the king was that his body was to remained as intact as possible because of its reflection on the body carried alongside the king into the afterlife.
To keep the body from drying out, the priests prepping the body would cover his body with natron so that it would dry out completely and leave no retaining moisture that could cause decay. After a long, 70 day drying process, the body was then ready to be wrapped. An important feature for mummifying individuals is to have specific priests chanting over the body while the mummification process is in progression. The spells chanted were supposed to keep evil spirits away from harming the king. The only physical evidence derived from Ramesses II’s mummy of the ‘spirit-deterring’ process are the oils spread on the layers of the wrappings as well as the amulets. (R.Freed et al – U. Of Michigan, Ramses II).
– Link to book: “Ramses II, the great pharaoh and his time” by R.Freed and colleagues.
Ramesses II: Embalming Process
Ramesses II was a grand and worshipped Pharaoh who's people of Egypt wanted to make sure his soul would live on for eternity in the underworld. To ensure the Pharaoh's safe journey, his body was embalmed or mummified. First, the brain was removed using a long hook that was inserted through his nasal cavity. After the brain was completely removed, they filled his nasal cavity with peppercorns, seeds, and even small animal bones to retain the unique structure of Ramesses II's nose (2011). This is said to have been an unusual process because few mummies show evidence of this kind of treatment. It explains why Ramesses II's mummy was one of the few with such a distinctive profile. The majority of mummy's noses are flattened by the tight wrappings around their face, but the filling in Ramesses II's nasal cavity protected it from such destruction (Fitzgerald, 2009). 
The embalmers then individually wrapped his toes, fingers, arms and legs which shows fine attention to detail and precision. Once every part of his body was wrapped, they placed the Book of the Dead between his hands (Fitzgerald, 2009). This is a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts from various periods, containing prayers, magic formulas, and hymns to be used by the soul of the deceased for guidance and protection on its journey to the afterlife. More linen strips were wrapped around his body and then he was enveloped in a second layer that was soaked in resin and sweet smelling oils that helped preserve the skin. Amulets were placed in between the linen layers that were said to protect the body on it's way to the underworld. Finally, Ramesses II's body was draped in a white cloth and the embalmers carefully painted an image of Osiris (the Egyptian God of the underworld) on the outside of the wrappings as a finishing touch (Fitzgerald, 2009). Although the embalmers are thought to have taken great caution with his body during the mummification, some researchers believe there is evidence of carelessness.
The embalmers had allegedly removed Ramesses II's heart by accident which is the main holder of intelligence of the individual, and is crucial for the journey into the underworld. To correct this mistake, they had to sew the organ back inside his body (Fitzgerald, 2009). Radiographs of the body, thousands of years later, also showed evidence of a postmortem fracture on his cervical spine (Feldtkeller et al., 2002). Researchers believe this was a purposeful fracture to straighten out the neck before the embalming process (Feldtkeller et al., 2002), but could have also been an accidental break while the body was being prepared.
Ramesses II: Sarcophagus and Paintings
Unfortunately for Egyptologists and art history enthusiasts, the first tomb of Ramesses II was located in a terrible place. The location is prone to flooding (ten times and counting, so far), and as a result a lot of the artwork that isn’t completely ruined is very washed out. He was reburied, and whatever was salvageable was reburied with him. His first tomb was located in the illustrious Valley of the Kings .
Arguably the greatest ruler in Egyptian Pharaoh history, he was known as “The Builder”. He utilised his long reign as Pharaoh to not only go off on a great number of campaigns and raids, but he also focused on architecture that would last a great deal of time after his number was up.
Thought of as not the longest, but possibly the tomb with the greatest amount of surface area, it is thought that Ramesses II began work on his grandiose tomb the second year he held power. Found on the walls of his tomb (evidence remaining after the effects of the flood) were paintings and engravings. The main rejuvenation effort was placed upon the sarcophagus, which was analyzed and revealed to have been completely covered in coloured pigment. Also found in his tomb was a small carved pit, only found in two other tombs to date. On the wall near the entrance of the tomb there is an engraving of Ramesses the second’s most famous wife, Nefertari. There is mention of her in his tomb, but in her tomb there is no mention of him, even though she died much before he did. Not only does he have a fantastically gigantic resting place for himself, but another huge tomb known as KV 5 was created for his sons.
Arguably the greatest ruler in Egyptian Pharaoh history, he was known as “The Builder”. He utilised his long reign as Pharaoh to not only go off on a great number of campaigns and raids, but he also focused on architecture that would last a great deal of time after his number was up.
Nefertari: Grave Goods and Funerary Practices
When Nefertari’s tomb (QV66) was discovered in 1904 by Ernesto Schiaparelli no body was found, nor where there many grave goods left in her grave, as it had been robbed in antiquity. However there were several things left in the grave: pieces from her pink granite sarcophagus, scarab pieces, pottery fragments, shabti figures and the lid of a shabti box. There was also a wooden djed-pillar (seen below), as well either the knob of a chest or the handle from a cane was found. The grave robbers apparently missed a pair of her funerary sandals; also a fragment of a bracelet was found and bought by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
Though her body complete body was not found, Ernesto found 2 knees along with material for mummification. It may be that her missing body was taken out in the 26th Dynasty (she was buried in the middle of the 19th). However, another Egyptologist Christian Leblanc found pieces of a pink granite sarcophagus, which had the name Nefertari on it, in the tomb of Queen Tuya, who was the mother of Ramesses II. He proposed that Neferatris’ tomb was taken out and smashed and the parts reused for Tuya’s tomb (Nefertari QV66, 2011).
In Ancient Egypt it was believed that men were responsible for creation as the myths surrounding birth and rebirth the male gods are the ones who create, whereas the female goddess are the vessels through which the gods act. Because of this for females to be reborn in the afterlife they had to become masculinized afterwards (ed. Graves-Brown 2008). This was solved through adaptations of the female’ identity at death, in order to be reborn a female would have to be shaped into a form of Osiris (ed. Graves-Brown 2008). This was done through the androgynies of her sarcophagus and the shabti figures by deemphasizing more feminine aspects such as the manner of dress, and an androgynous.
However there is no set of rules or requirements for the shaping of the female so there is a lot of variation across time (ed. Graves-Brown 2008). We are only interested in the 19th Dynasty as this was when Neferatri was alive. Before the 19th Dynasty the forms were more androgynous in form, however during the 19th there was a move to include more feminine looking funerary art; such as the inclusion of female style dress on the sarcophagus. During the reign of Ramesses II dark red skin was used to depict women (ed. Graves-Brown 2008).
(The Fakebusters, 2010)
We are only able to speculate at this point about how Neferatri’s body and sarcophagus would have been decorated because they have not been found. However we may be able to infer what it possibly looks like by comparing it to other female burials, which have been found from the same era, but because of the status difference her burial, would have been grander in scale.
Something, which was interesting, was that Neferatris name is mentioned in Ramesses II’s tomb, but in Neferatri’s tomb there is no mention of Ramesses II or their sons.
(Nefertari QV66, 2011)
Nefertari: Tomb Paintings
The spectacular paintings in Nefertari’s tomb were created by first applying several layers of plaster to the limestone and then carving the vignettes and texts into that plaster (McDonald 1996). This established a suitable surface that could be primed with gypsum wash and then painted in brilliant colours (McDonald 1996).
The paintings cover about 520 square metres of plastered walls and ceilings with various corridors, annexes, chambers, niches, and recesses. The paintings are part of a ritual process designed to guide Nefertari into the hereafter following her death. Along with the texts adorning the walls, the paintings act as a beacon to aid her on her “long and perilous” journey (McDonald 1996). Interestingly, the tomb is divided into two separate elements: the upper level of the tomb (Chambers C and G) is the conceptual equivalent to the Akhet, the area that Nefertari and the solar deity must traverse to enter and exit the netherworld; the lower level (Burial Chamber K) is like the Duat, the realm of Osiris and the dead (McCarthy 2002).
Atum (the creator god) Nun (primeval ocean)
Shu (god of air and light) Tefnut (goddess of moisture)
Geb (god of earth) Nut (goddess of the sky)
Isis Osiris
Nephthys Seth
The significance of Osiris is represented through several vignettes within the tomb. It is thought that the dead need to identify with “Osiris, the ultimate model for their salvation and a protection against Seth, who [represents] hostile, chaotic forces that [imperil] a soul’s transformation into an effective, eternal spirit” (McDonald 1996).
Other divine deities are present throughout the tomb. In the upper chambers (C and G) Nefertari, with her body preserved, is greeted by some of these deities who grant her a place in the afterlife. Her descent into the burial chamber (chamber K) begins after she is fortified with occult powers and she then must secure immortality by successfully navigating the gates and portals of the netherworld. Horus, son of Isis and dressed as officiating priest, restores Nefertari’s body after she meets the challenges. At this point, Nefertari is joined by Osiris in her eternal resting place in the afterlife (McDonald 1996).
Nefertari: Hieroglyphs and Monuments
Hieroglyphs
The hieroglyphics in Queen Nefertari’s Tomb mostly compose of excerpts from the Book of the Dead, the Egyptian book of spells and rituals for the afterlife, as well as snippets explaining her life and her importance. Her entire tomb is known as “House of Eternity”, eternity is important as it highlights her importance and her status in both life and death (McDonald, 1996: 8). The hieroglyphs are in the tomb for both the visitor to the tomb, as well as to be a beacon for Queen Nefertari in the afterlife (McDonald, 1996: 6). The hieroglyphs are created out of being lightly carved into plaster and when dried they were primed with gypsum; in her tomb there is 520-square meters of hieroglyphs (McDonald, 1996: 6).
Though there are at least eight different chapters from the Book of the Dead written in Queen Nefertari’s tomb, chapter 17 is one of the more widely showcased texts within the tomb (McDonald, 1996: 57). One important section of the hieroglyphs deals with Egyptian mythology pertaining to the Queen and both her past and future. There is a part that explains the stories of the nine main Gods and Goddesses of Egypt. The deities listed are Atum (finisher of worlds), Shu (personification of air), Tefnut (goddess of moisture, air and rain), Geb (personification of earth), Nut (personification of sky), Isis (goddess of motherhood, magic, and fertility), Osiris (God of the underworld and the afterlife), Nephthys (Goddess of night and lamentation), and Seth (Storms, Desert, and Chaos) all figure prominently into her tomb, the first generation listed is associated with the earth, while the second generation is associated with humans (McDonald, 1996:48-52). The Queen herself was associated closely with the Goddess Mut, mother goddess who can be depicted as both a woman and a white vulture, who was an associated that she had since her birth, and later she became also associated with Hathor, also a mother goddess, possibly depicted as a cow, both powerful, beautiful, and domestic Goddesses of the Egyptian pantheon. Throughout the tomb Nefertari is referenced to as “Osiris” which is both a great honor, putting her almost par with the Kings for status, and also means that she has completed the crucial step towards her quest for immortality (McDonald, 1996: 51).
Figure 1: First Generation of deities-Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut
Figure 2: Second Generation of deities-Isis, Osiris, Nephthys, and Seth
Figure 3: Mut and Hathor
“Beginning of the praises and recitations to come forth and go down into the Necropolis, to be spiritualized in the Beautiful West, the coming forth by day in order to assume the forms amoung any he [sic] wishes, playing senet and sitting in the booth, coming forth as a living ba by the Osiris, the king’s great wife, mistress of the two lands, Nefertari, beloved of Mut, justified after he [sic] died. It is effective t do this on earth, so that it happens entirely according to instructions (Book of the Dead Chapter 17 [McDonald, 1996: 59]).”
The above quote is from the Book of the Dead, as translated in House of Eternity: Tomb of Nefertari. The book suggests that the slip of pronoun my have been because of loss of concentration; it could be attributed to many different things (McDonald, 1996: 59). The main point though of showcasing this quote is to exhibit, that Queen Nefertari was in fact granted almost equal rights to those of a man in ancient Egypt.
Monuments
Queen Nefertari is special, in regards that she is one of the only Queens’ who gained a similar monumental legacy that, which the Kings of Ancient Egypt received. Queen Nefertari has two monuments in devotion to her, which are listed in the texts and associated with her life and burial. The first is her colossus, a huge statue of high status, in Luxor. The second monument to her greatness is two 33 feet high colossus in the temple of Abu-Simbel. This second monument is especially unique for a woman as it associates her with both the Goddess Mut and the Goddess Hathor (Lesko, 1991: 10). Within the monuments of the time the women were portrayed as voluptuous and eternally youthful to stress immortality. This association is a reflection of her involvement in religious ritual and state affairs in Egyptian life. These also exhibit the fact that Queen Nefertari’s own legacy spans far further then just her tomb (McDonald, 1996: 16+17).
Figure 4: Nefertari Colossus at Luxor (above) Figure 5: Nefertari Colossus at Abu-Simbel (bellow)
Discussion
A direct comparison between the preparation of the bodies into the afterlife is impossible because the body of Nefertari was never found. However, it is assumed that the preparations of her body would be similar to that of Ramesses' because she was his wife, and Queen, rendering her of high status. Therefore, they would have had to make sure she was properly prepared for the afterlife. Her preparation was never stated specifically, but we can infer that her organs were removed and placed in canopic jars prior to her body being wrapped in layers of linen. In Ancient Egyptian society, females were thought to not have a role in rebirth, so in order to be reborn in the afterlife they had to undergo a gender change during the mummification process. This gender change was brought about through the artwork on her sarcophagus. In comparing the grave goods and sarcophagus of Ramesses II and Nefertari was difficult as in Ramesses II’s tomb only his sarcophagus was left, the material was calcite whereas the material which is thought to be pink granite. We are unaware at this point whether there was any symbolic importance in the type of stone used. However we are unable to compare the grave goods as both were robbed in antiquity, although several objects were left behind in Nefertari’s tomb.
When comparing the artwork in the tombs of Ramesses II and Nefertari, there are a few main difficulties. First of all, the tomb of Ramesses II had been excessively flooded, washing away most evidence of painted artwork on the walls. The tomb of Nefertari is covered in meaningful artwork designed to aid her on her journey to the afterlife. The tomb of Ramesses II lacks paintings, but there are interesting carvings in the walls. The engravings in the wall of the Ramesses II chamber relate mostly to his family, notably one engraving of Nefertari. The one thing the two have in common are the idea that they are both buried alongside meaningful imagery that was designed to help smooth the way for the journey into the afterlife.
Comparing the hieroglyphs in Queen Nefertari's Tomb to Ramesses II's tomb, there is an apparent difference between the two. There is an absence of hieroglyphs in Ramesses II's tomb due to to numerous floodings. While Queen Nefertari's Tomb has an abundance of beautiful hieroglyphic vingettes and quotes from the Book of the Dead. I hypothesize that if there were to still be present hieroglyphs within Ramesses II's tomb, they would be almost identical to the text found in Queen Nefertari's tomb. This is because, the texts used to adorn Queen Nefertari's tomb are usually used only for the tombs of those of the male sex. Because of Queen Nefertari's great status she was granted almost the same rights as any king. With regards to monuments comparison, while we are aware there are monuments pertaining to Ramesses II and we have certainly illustrated Queen Nefertari's own monumental legacy, Ramesses II's monuments were not discussed in detail.
When comparing the artwork in the tombs of Ramesses II and Nefertari, there are a few main difficulties. First of all, the tomb of Ramesses II had been excessively flooded, washing away most evidence of painted artwork on the walls. The tomb of Nefertari is covered in meaningful artwork designed to aid her on her journey to the afterlife. The tomb of Ramesses II lacks paintings, but there are interesting carvings in the walls. The engravings in the wall of the Ramesses II chamber relate mostly to his family, notably one engraving of Nefertari. The one thing the two have in common are the idea that they are both buried alongside meaningful imagery that was designed to help smooth the way for the journey into the afterlife.
Comparing the hieroglyphs in Queen Nefertari's Tomb to Ramesses II's tomb, there is an apparent difference between the two. There is an absence of hieroglyphs in Ramesses II's tomb due to to numerous floodings. While Queen Nefertari's Tomb has an abundance of beautiful hieroglyphic vingettes and quotes from the Book of the Dead. I hypothesize that if there were to still be present hieroglyphs within Ramesses II's tomb, they would be almost identical to the text found in Queen Nefertari's tomb. This is because, the texts used to adorn Queen Nefertari's tomb are usually used only for the tombs of those of the male sex. Because of Queen Nefertari's great status she was granted almost the same rights as any king. With regards to monuments comparison, while we are aware there are monuments pertaining to Ramesses II and we have certainly illustrated Queen Nefertari's own monumental legacy, Ramesses II's monuments were not discussed in detail.
Conclusion
In conclusion, while we were unable to come to any concrete differences between the graves of Ramesses II and Nefertari, we did find that a woman's gender had to under go a metamorphosis to a more masculine or androgynous persona to be reborn in the after life. Therefore, a woman had to be represented as a male through her sarcophagus, and not showing evidence of children or husbands anywhere within the tomb. We found that Ramesses II, being male, was given great care to assist his journey to the afterlife. However, due to the Queen's ascribed status we can infer that her treatment would have been similar to that of the Pharoh. There were some blunders, but he was wrapped and preserved with great care, and his unique profile was made eternal through the unique process of filling his nasal cavity with peppercorns, seeds, and small animal bones.
When looking at the tomb of Ramesses II, even though the archaeological findings from his tomb are scarce, it is obvious that the people he ruled over worked very hard to ensure that his passage to the afterlife would be peaceful and successful. Based on the remains found in the archaeological record in the tombs of Ramesses II and his favorite wife Nefertari, we are able to infer that the people they ruled over wished to ensure that they had a smooth transition into the afterlife and that regardless of gender they were viewed as important.
When looking at the tomb of Ramesses II, even though the archaeological findings from his tomb are scarce, it is obvious that the people he ruled over worked very hard to ensure that his passage to the afterlife would be peaceful and successful. Based on the remains found in the archaeological record in the tombs of Ramesses II and his favorite wife Nefertari, we are able to infer that the people they ruled over wished to ensure that they had a smooth transition into the afterlife and that regardless of gender they were viewed as important.
References
Benderitter, Thierry, translated by Hirst, Jon, The tomb of Nefertari Merytmut QV66. Available from <http://www.osirisnet.net/tombes/pharaons/nefertari/e_nefertari_01.htm>. [March 6, 2011].
Cooney, Kathlyn M 2008. ‘The Problem of Female Rebirth in New Kingdom Egypt: the fragmentation of the female individual in her funerary equipment.’ In Sex and Gender In Ancient Egypt, eds Carolyn Graves-Brown, The Classical Press Of Wales, Swansea. pp. 1-25.
Feldtkeller, E., Lemmel, E.M., Russell, A.S. 2002. Ankylosing Spondylitis in the Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. Reumatology International. 23 (1) pp. 1-5.
Figure 1: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nut_%28goddess%29
Figure 2: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis
Figure 3: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mut
Figure 5: http://www.bigstockphoto.com/image-2874524/stock-photo-nefertari-temple-statue-at-abu-simbel-egypt
Fitzgerald, S. 2009. Ramses II: Egyptian Pharaoh, Warrior, and Builder. 1 ed. Compass Point Books.
Lesko, B.S. 1991, "Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt", vol. Vol.54, no. 1, pp. 4-15.
McCarthy, H.L. & McCarthy, H. 2002, "The Osiris Nefertari: A Case Study of Decorum, Gender, and Regeneration", Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, vol. 39, pp. 173-195.
McDonald, J.K. 1996, House of eternity : the tomb of Nefertari, Getty Conservation Institute and J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, Calif.
Michael C. Carlos Museum. “Ramesses” [online] available at http://www.carlos.emory.edu/RAMESSES/3_mummification.html [March 25th , 2011].
Moreland, J. 2001, Archaeology and text, Duckworth, London.
Ramses II- S.Fitzgerald, pgs: 88-91
R.Freed et al – U. Of Michigan, Ramses II
The Fakebusters Egyptian Antiques 2010. Accessed March 28, 2011 http://www.thefakebusters.com/burial%20masks/real%20Egyptian%20burial%20masks%201.htm
Friday 18 March 2011
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